Chinese higher education has been faced with the dual challenges of system adjustment and regional balance since it was characterized by″late development and exogenous form .″During 1927 1937,due to the grim situation at home and abroad,Nanjing Nationalist Government took a series of educational reforms to build the modern higher education system,laying the foundation for organizational structure and system standardization .In this process,the system reference and the structural adjustment in the development of higher education became the focus of attention . From the emergence of Peiping University to the establishment of Northwest Associated University,the transition epitomizes the localization trial of the institutional transplant and equalization efforts of regional distribution in the development of China's higher education system reform . In 1927,Cai Yuanpei and others advocated the French reform of″University District System,″committed to getting rid of political control over education and pursuing the″academic education″and″academic studies,″which provided new system resources for the development of Chinese higher education,and led to the establishment of Peiping University in north China . However,the system was controversial in the implementation confined by times and finally ended up with the abolition of the″University District System .″In the brief process,it embodied the tension between reform and tradition,between university and society .In addition,it provided a reflection and a beneficial reference for the″localization″of China's higher education system . At that time,China experienced imbalanced development in politics,economy and culture,which resulted in the concentration of higher education institutions in the Republic of China and uneven distribution in departments,disciplines and regions . Io improve this situation,the Ministry of Education of the Nationalist Government paid more attention to practical disciplines,department abolition and building new colleges in the inner land,but the reform showed limited effects .With the outbreak of the Marco Polo Bridge Incident,colleges and universities located in North China were in predicament and the massive westward migration of colleges and universities created an opportunity for higher education adjustment .Although it was passive under the threat of the War,it contained profound underlying causes and social needs .After this adjustment,the inner requirement of the efforts of the Nationalist Government to promote higher education balance was realized,which laid a solid foundation for the subsequent development of higher education pattern in Northwestern China . Centered on the development of Northwest Associated University and displaying the institutional transformation of Chinese higher education,the paper aims at a study of the historical basis for the formation of China's northwestern higher education pattern and reflecting the conflicts and integration of the internal tradition of university development and social reality,based on the″localization″and″equalization″of higher education development,reforms on ″University district system,″the shift of higher education focus after″September 18 Incident″and the stipulation of the wartime education policies after″July 7th Incident .″

The term kexue came into use as far back as the Tang Dynasty .It meant the″study of the Imperial Examination .″In the Late Ming Dynasty and Early Qing Dynasty,with the wave of ″Introducing Western Learning to the East,″Western university discipline system and knowledge category system were introduced into China,adding the meaning of the″study of different disciplines″to the term kexue However,kexue didn't mean modern science at that time .Modern science was often called the study of gewu qiongli,or the study of gezhi for short .Around the Meiji Restoration,Japanese scholars began to introduce natural sciences like Western modern medical science,and then introduced the modern Western discipline system including natural sciences,humanistic and social sciences .In this process,they translated the term″science″as kexue and endowed it with the modern meaning .Along with the opening to the world after the Opium Wars,especially with the Westernization Movement and the rise of the Westernization of Education,the concept of Western modern sciences together with its essential feature of ″Discipline Classification in Learning″was introduced into China .In the Late Qing Dynasty,many Chinese intellectuals and foreign missionaries in China followed the tradition of Late Ming Dynasty and Early Qing Dynasty .They used the term gezhi to refer to science and introduced the essential feature of″Discipline Classification in Learning″of modern science by spreading″Western Learning″and establishing new-type schools .The defeat in the Sino-Japanese War prompted the Chinese to review and rethink the merits and demerits of the former Westernization Movement and the Westernization of Education . On this basis,Chinese people's understanding of the property and feature of″Discipline Classification in Learning″of Western modern science was improved to a higher level,indicating that in Chinese people's mind at that time,″Western Learning″was not only the study of gezhi which mainly included craft and the branch disciplines of natural sciences,but also consisted of modern humanistic and social sciences .The progress from″Western Technology″focusing on Western craft and natural sciences to″Western Politics″ including Western humanistic and social sciences marked the breakthrough of the Chinese people's understanding of the Western knowledge category system and the concept of discipline classification in learning in the Late Qing Dynasty .They began to realize that natural science and technology together with humanistic and social sciences are two related and inseparable parts in the Western modern knowledge and discipline category system .This progress helped the Chinese to grasp the essence of the concept of modern science as well as its feature of″Discipline Classification in Learning″more comprehensively and deeply .In this context,Kang Youwei,Liang Qichao,Wang Guowei et al .firstly borrowed the Japanese term kexue for modern science during the process of spreading Western culture and knowledge of science,and expounded that modern science attached importance to revealing″General Axiom,″namely the general laws and rules .On the other hand,scholars like Yan Fu,Cai Yuanpei and students like Ren Hongjun who returned from Europe and America emphasized that modern science was characterized by the scientific methodology of stressing observation,experiment and induction and thus enhanced the view of science in modern China in richness and comprehensiveness,enabling it to involve three main aspects,namely the form of″Discipline Classification in Learning,″the gist of seeking ″General Axiom″and the methodology of stressing observation,experiment and induction .

Using the numerous data and statistics of the literature that were published during the Republic of China period,based on the modern European and American preschool education theory,this article briefly reviewed the history of the″teaching″function concept in early childhood education theory .It is known that from the late 19th century to the mid-20th century,the modern European and American preschool education thoughts gradually formed .Among all the theories,the exploration of the″teaching″function in early childhood marked the significant progress when it was compared to the traditional parenting philosophy in the Middle Ages,thus making it an important part of the early childhood education theory,as much as the role of the concept of″raising″(child care) is in the early childhood education theory . These cognitive concepts were gradually quoted by the scholars during the Republic of China . The scholars explained the concept of the″teaching″function in early childhood education from a macro perspective .Their understanding towards the targets and objectives of the″teaching″function in early childhood education developed in stages .In the 1920s,the theory of Child Study was introduced to China,and it played the supporting role for the quotations involving the concept of the″teaching″function in early childhood education in the aspect of child instinct,child care environment and child physical and mental development . Scholars also recognized the enhancement that the humanitarian and Liberalism,which were derived from the European Enlightenment,had brought to the modern European and American concept of the″teaching″ function in early childhood education . The enhancement was embodied as follows :children's personality development and autonomous status must be respected;the design of the early childhood education methodology and evaluation system must be child-centered . Scholars concerned more about the enhancement that the progress of psychological science in modern European and American had brought to the modern European and American concept of the ″teaching″function in early childhood education .They also quoted several mainstream schools that were crucial to enhance the modern European and American concept of the″teaching″ function in early childhood education . The birth of the Child-Centered concept brought new guidelines and methodologies to the practice of the″teaching″function in early childhood education .Child Realism provided the tool for studying the early childhood cognitive processes . Child Behavior believed that the study for early childhood psychology should focus on child behavior instead of child awareness .Child Independent theory held the opinion that the most important educational goal was to develop child independence,and then the accordingly designed approaches were examined .The scholars' quotations of the concept of the″teaching″function in modern European and American early childhood education reflected the demands of the Chinese preschool education theory during the Republic of China period in three major ways :firstly,the quotations reflected the preschool child care and educational demand that modern institutional transformation and the socio-economic and family pattern change brought to the society;secondly,they reflected the situation that there were no methodologies for child care practice during the Republic of China period;and finally,they reflected the need for guidance and directions of child care at that time .There were stages in the Chinese quotations of the cognitive concept of the″teaching″function in modern European and American early childhood education thoughts .The 1920s and 1930s were marked as the rapid development period .However,during the stages of war,″child care″function surpassed the″teaching″function and became the first priority,and then the quotes for the″teaching″function gradually decreased .

Controlling state power and protecting public rights are the original purposes of the rule of law .Restriction and supervision serve as two basic mechanisms to control power and protect rights,and they are different in terms of power relations and functions .In order to get a good grasp of the differences between restriction and supervision in mechanism and function,we should have a better understanding of their different internal logics and operating mechanisms . The relationship between restriction and supervision exists in the following three different aspects .First of all,it refers to the control relations among agents who hold power;second,it refers to the system of power control,namely the institutionalization of restriction relations and supervision relations;third,the restriction and supervision of power are the natural outcomes of power control mechanism,aiming at ensuring a smooth and regular operation of power . Restriction and supervision are two different control relations between power subjects . The former is bidirectional while the latter is unidirectional .In most cases,however,the subject of power gets involved in multiple power relations where the restriction relation and supervision relation interweave .They are two key factors having impact on the power structure,which in turn affects the concrete realization of power relations . The ways to execute restriction and supervision are well established in specific power structures,forming two different power-control mechanisms of restriction and supervision . In the course of power allocation,power operation and power accountability,both the restriction mechanism and the supervision mechanism have their own particular features .Overall,supervision is an efficiency-oriented power control mechanism while restriction is a power control mechanism based on procedural rationality .Supervision mechanism means that an agent can hold complete authority and power within a special scope and shall be punished only when the execution of power is contrary to the intention commissioned .Restriction mechanism divides the power or authority into different parts,aiming at ensuring the restrictions between different agents of power and avoiding the abuse of power . Although restriction mechanism and supervision mechanism are taken as basic mechanisms ensuring the normal operation of power,both have their own limitations .On the one hand,too much emphasis on restriction will reduce the efficiency of power operation,and the particular person who abuses his/her power may escape punishment .On the other hand,supervision is always faced with a paradox-how could the supervisor himself/herself be supervised ?Supervising the supervisory authority by establishing another supervisory department may result in endless expansion of supervision power and supervisory organizations . Under the traditional power controlling mode in China which paid more attention to supervision rather than put emphasis on restriction,the functions of restrictive mechanism are impaired and the inherent defects of supervisory mechanism are magnified .To prevent and punish corruption more effectively and make fresh progress in improving our legal system,the only way is to design reasonable restrictive structures for subjects of power,strengthen supervision,and establish and perfect a balanced power controlling mechanism of restriction and supervision .

John Rawls never tells all stories about himself,and there are some secrets crucial to an accurate interpretation of his philosophy .Rawls'political philosophy has its intellectual origins in German classical philosophy,Anglo-American analytical philosophy,social contract theory,utilitarian political science and modern economics .Rawls himself is inspired by philosophers ranging from John Locke,David Hume,Adam Smith,Rousseau,Kant,Hegel (Walter T . Stace),Carl Marx,Wittgenstein (Norman Malcolm ),to Isaiah Berlin and Hart . In the construction of Rawls' theory of justice,Hegelian philosophy sets up the framework,and the analytical philosophy offers the methodological guidance and contemporary economics provides the feasible path of actual operation for Rawls' discussions on the principles of justice .Besides,the potential impact of Christianity,positively or negatively,also underlies Rawls philosophy,as Richard Marius mentioned,Rawls'loss of faith is partly attributed to his intellectual involvement with Walter T .Stace's essay Man A gainst Darkness . These backgrounds are deliberately concealed by Rawls for some reason . The sources of Rawls' thoughts which are hidden purposely includes elements from like Oriental mystic Hindu philosophy,Hegelian philosophy and contemporary economic approach to political philosophy . Besides,analytical philosophy is highlighted as Rawls' major academic background and utilitarianism as the academic opposing target,all of which might serve together as misdirection that leads to wrong interpretation of Rawls' political philosophy Terms like″the veil of ignorance,″″original position,″″overlapping consensus,″″principles of justice,″and″the law of peoples,″are usually understood in the light of analytical philosophy,but their non-analytical backgrounds are usually ignored .Improper interpretations of the principles of Justice,which holds the core position in Rawls' philosophy,are inevitable as a result of ignoring Rawls' secret,which produces severe results both academically and socially .In order to avert misunderstanding and comprehend Rawls' theory with accuracy,these covert elements should be paid great attention to and should be taken into account . So the conclusions are : (1 ) Rawls' theory of justice has its intellectual origins from continental philosophy . (2) Hegel exerts a significant impact on Rawls . The framework of Rawls' theory of justice is carried out in a Hegelian manner .(3) The debates between Rawls,Sandel,MacIntyre,Taylor and Rorty are more like squabble between brothers in a big family . Rawls is a continental philosopher in a more profound sense .(4) Rawls' secret-the intentional concealment of some of his academic backgrounds,especially his relationship with Stace-leads to gross misinterpretations of him in China .There is a long way to go in exploring the political philosophy of Rawls for the Chinese academic world .

The paper mainly discusses the relationship between trade union and wage disparity,and the mechanism of collective bargaining in reducing income inequality .The income distribution inequality is a critical problem confronting China's economic reform,for which the reform of primary distribution is important .The experiences of the advanced countries reducing income inequality through collective bargaining can be introduced to China . Firstly,through the historical data of union density and membership and the summary of past researches,the paper points out that the trade union experienced an inverse U shape development in the past century in US and UK .The government regulated union's behaviour and its relations with firms through legislation and policy . The market-oriented labour relation regulation system is what China's reform should aim to achieve . Secondly,the change of union power affects the collective bargaining result . Taking organization development,objective standards and worker unity into consideration,trade unions choose the standardized wage rate strategy in the wage bargaining in order to absorb more members and keep the union size .The standardized wage rate includes job wage rate and seniority automation rate with maximum . Thirdly,under such strategy,the union density varies inversely with extent of inequality . This paper uses the ratio of 9th to 1st deciles and 5th to 1st deciles to represent wage dispersion,and Gini Coefficient to represent income inequality .With the withering of trade unions of US and UK in 1970s and 1980s,the income disparity increases on the contrary .Also,a large number of studies have approved the positive effects of trade unions on reducing wage dispersion . Fourthly,such effects are derived from the squeezing effect of standardized wage rate and the threatening effect of unions .The mechanism is increasing wage rate of low income level and narrowing wage distribution through gathering more workers at the same job wage rate level . Finally,there are some problems in China regarding trade unions,such as low coverage rate of collective contracts,non-institutionalized collective negotiation,direct interferences of government .It is necessary to emphasize the influence of collective negotiation in the primary distribution to deal wtih the income inequality problem in China . There are few Chinese research papers discussing about the trade union and income inequality from a historical view .US and UK are two of the most advanced market economy entities,hence China can learn from their experiences to deepen economic reform and to improve income equality .This paper firstly presents a tendency based on the historical data,then attempts to explain the reasons behind the tendency,and validate the argument with empirical research . The paper also has some shortcomings .The first is the missing of the early 20-century data . The second is that the economic and political environment for legislations and policies which have changed the union power is not well explored .Finally,there is a lack of micro data about China's collective negotiation and wage disparity .

This article analyzes the usufructuary right features of carbon emission right,and then discusses the prescriptive nature and public nature of carbon emission right,as a type of usufructuary right . First of all,the object of carbon emission right is certain amount of greenhouse gas .Carbon emission right is the legal basis for carbon emission trading .The object of carbon emission rights is certified by quantifying certain amount of greenhouse gas .Even though greenhouse gas cannot be deemed as a typical tangible property according to property theory,it can be categorized as an intangible property,enjoying property's features . Secondly,carbon emission right enjoys the features of usufructuary right . The object of carbon emission right is a type of intangible property . The arrangements of carbon quotas,reduction unit,and certified emission reductions enable the holders to possess,use and benefit from holding certain amount of greenhouse gas emission right .The right-holders realize their rights by obtaining a specific number of the use value of greenhouse gas emission rights .These coincide with the attributes of usufructuary right . Finally,the public nature of carbon emission right cannot change its essence of private interests .Carbon emission right has the substantial elements of usufructuary right,it has the features of relationship to things and relationship to humans,although it seemingly has conflict with the doctrine of usufructuary right superficially,carbon emission right fits the principle of legality of right in rem .Although the exercise of the right of carbon emission is closely related to the social and economic background,and it has been influenced by public law,its private law nature enjoyed by usufructuary rights will not change . Commoditizing carbon emissions right is the precondition of rationally allocating resources and climate adaptation . Scholarly discussions about carbon emissions focus more on carbon emission trading market,trading mechanism and trading laws and regulations,the implementation of the development and improvement,while researches about the legal attributes of carbon emission right are limited .Particularly,researches in analyzing the legal attributes of carbon emission right from the perspective of property rights is noticeably absent .As a result,it is of both theoretical and practical significance to conduct researches in this perspective . Through normative analysis and comparative study,this article analyzes the usufructuary right attributes of carbon emission right by referring to property right in domestic law .To grasp and improve legal mechanism governing carbon emission trading,it is of paramount significance to precisely comprehend the property attributes of carbon emission right .

This article applies the theory of loopholes in law to the systematic and technical researches of regulatory competence loopholes in the food safety law in China .It achieves the goals of integrating organically the theory of norms of regulatory competence with the theory of loopholes in law,combining the research of branch law with the research of jurisprudence,and providing important references for further amendments to the food safety law in China .The major and novel point of the article is to regulate behaviors by rules,and the competence herein refers not only to the scope of authority but also to the capacity and competency of the authority .Regulatory bodies and supervisees should be equally regulated and restrained by the food safety law .The norm of competence is supposed to be an effective legal approach checking and restraining the regulatory power .It is the core pillar of the order of regulatory laws and even food safety laws as a whole .As for regulatory norms,neither does the food safety law explicitly define the concept of competence nor reasonably classify all of the varieties of competence .It only roughly provides that the obligations of food safety regulations shall be assumed by the health administration,quality supervision,industry and commerce administration,food and drug supervision and administration departments at or above the county level pursuant to the legal competences and procedures . The concept of competence is always confused with the concepts of authority,responsibility,obligation,and the norm of competence itself is far from systematic .Nevertheless,passive enforcements occur repeatedly on a large scale in the whole country in practice,which indicates the lack of regulation and control of regulatory bodies .Judging from two criteria of norms and facts and being based on the inadequacy of norms of regulatory competence and the current situation of passive enforcement,it is concluded that China's norms of regulatory competence in the food safety sector is seriously defective . Regulatory competence loopholes are one type of these five attributes :loopholes of norms,open loopholes,prior loopholes,partial loopholes,and public law loopholes .Regulatory competence loopholes have the following specific types :competence loopholes in time,exclusive competence loopholes,competence loopholes in discretionary power,transverse competence loopholes,among which competence loopholes in time is the core loophole .The existence of competence loopholes in time endows law enforcement officers with the power to select the timing of law enforcement .To some extent,competence loopholes in time is the direct reason of passive enforcement .Regulatory competence loopholes may lead the system of regulatory power to gradually be confused and inefficient,and finally reduce it to dysfunction of supervision .The fundamental reason for the emergence of regulatory competence loopholes and the ignorance of them lies in that many concepts and norms of food safety regulation and food production and operation rest still on the moral self-discipline level . Additionally,the consciousness of checking regulatory power is weak .In a sense,food safety law in China is more like a law in books than one in action .The key step of transformation is to stress the aim and function of law .If we want to eradicate the passive enforcement,we must fill up regulatory competence loopholes in time .Only when moral self-discipline turns to the establishment of regulation of norms of competence,law in books may evolve to law in action,and only when fragmented individual norms become a systematic system of norms of regulatory competence may we resolve thoroughly the problem of regulatory competence loopholes .The routine to fill up regulatory competence loopholes shall start from the legislation to the judiciary,and the fairness and justice of rules shall be noticed .The fundamental way is establishing a perfect system of norms of regulatory competence among which building a regulatory power system with time limit is the most important of all .The establishment of the super-ministry system did not yet effectively resolve the problem of competence loopholes in regions .Nevertheless,new problems have arisen in this period of time .Regulatory bodies are at a crossroad between the new regulatory system and old regulatory norms . It is urgent to amend the food safety law and fill up regulatory competence loopholes .

The″core-periphery″structure is the main pattern of the spatial distribution of industries .A correct understanding of the nature and dynamics of the formation of this structure is essential to the choice of the location and the scientific distribution of an industry .Traditional research,with the homogeneity of firms as its basic premise,uses the general and ambiguous term″industry share,″or a sum of the index of representative firms,to describe the regional differences in the spatial distribution of industries,which has an unfavorable impact on the theoretical and practical development of the spatial distribution of industries . This article borrows the basic ideas of META in its systematic review and analysis of the latest domestic and international research on the spatial distribution of industries from the perspectives of″market share″and″productivity effects .″We find that the spatial structure of heterogeneous firms has coupling duality,and the imbalanced spatial nature could be better explained from the perspective of productivity .This led us to a comparison of the dynamics between the formation and evolution of the dual-space structure .Our discovery is that in the supposed quantitative space of homogeneity,the dynamics of the regional transfer of representative firms basically originated from the static comparative advantages outside the industry and the dynamic comparative advantages within the industry,or from an integration of the two .Under the assumption of heterogeneity,however,the selection effect is the fourth force besides the traditional agglomeration and dispersion forces,and has both the agglomeration effect and competition effect . Further analysis shows that heterogeneous labor input,the external economies,trade cost and the heterogeneous demand or preference will affect the evolution of space structure by respectively influencing a firm's productivity and competitiveness . In unitary space,the trajectory of spatial evolution is basically a unidirectional transfer from higher gradient center to lower gradient periphery,while in dual-space,it is a bidirectional transfer,i .e .,the firms with lower productivity in the center move outward to the periphery and the firms with higher productivity move inward to the center .Extensive analysis shows that the technological chain,spatial chain and value chain are multi-coupled,which also confirms the space effect of modular division under the assumption of heterogeneity . In contrast to the traditional expectation of narrowing the gap in regional development under the policy of the gradient transfer of industries,the spatial sorting resulting from the selection of heterogeneous firms would enlarge the gap,which requires more refined and differentiated policies as well as considerations of the spatial arrangement and development strategies of the industry from the perspectives of technology and consumer value . The main significance of this article is its proposition of the spatial duality of industrial distribution and an analysis of the dynamics and possible factors of influence from the perspective of firm heterogeneity .It focuses on the description and definition of space and its mechanism of evolution using META methods . However,as the focus is on theoretical description,this framework is far from being perfect .Furthermore,because of the limitation of space,we have not looked into all the factors of the practice and application of policies .

At present,the western intertextuality theory,which focuses on discourse,is applied to a variety of academic fields including movies,news,literature,advertisement and so on;while the Chinese traditional intertextuality theory,which focuses on words,phrases,and sentences,could hardly be applied to other academic fields rather than linguistics .Compared with the application and development of the Western intertextuality theory,the Chinese traditional intertextuality theory is declining .However,the Chinese traditional intertextuality theory could be fruitful if it is further developed by thorough and detailed study on the types of intertextuality based on the corpus of the modern Chinese and the archaic Chinese . The Chinese traditional intertextuality theory considers the intertextuality as″symmetry structure which can be understood completely and correctly by semantic projection,inspiration and even omission between the former and latter language units .″According to the definition,this paper finds 22 types of intertextuality in Chinese .Four major types are illustrated below in detail : Type 1 is″X1X2,Y1Y2—X1X2Y2,Y1X2Y2,″which means that the semantic information of Y2 projects onto X1X2,and the semantic information of X2 projects onto Y1 Y2 simultaneously .For example,in the sentence″qin shi(X1 ) ming yue(X2 ),han shi(Y1 ) guan(Y2 ) (literally,the bright moon in the Qin dynasty and the frontier in the Han dynasty)″from a classical Chinese poetry,″qin shi (X1 )ming yue(X2 )″and″han shi (Y1 )guan (Y2 )″are symmetry structures . According to the interpretation of intertextuality,this symmetry structure means″the bright moon and frontier in the Qin dynasty,the bright moon and frontier in the Han dynasty,″as in the pattern of X1X2Y2,Y1X2Y2 (qin shi(X1 ) ming yue(X2 ) guan(Y2 ),han shi(X1 ) ming yue(X2 ) guan(Y2 )) . Type 2 is″X1 X2,Y1 Y2—X1 Y2,Y1 X2,″which means that the semantic information of Y2 is exchanged with that of X2 .For example,in the phrase″quan(X1 )xiang(X2 ),jiu(Y1 )lie(Y2 ) (literally,fragrant spring and clear wine),″″quan (X1 )xiang (X2 )″and″jiu (Y1 )lie (Y2 )″are symmetry structures .According to the interpretation of intertextuality,the symmetry structure means″clear spring and fragrant wine,″as in the pattern of X1 Y2,Y1 X2 (quan(X1 )lie(Y2 ),jiu (Y1 ) xiang(X2 )) . Type 3 is″X1X2,Y1Y2—X1X2Y',X'Y1Y2,″which means that the information related with Y1 or Y2 is added to X1X2,and the information related with X1 or X2 is added to Y1Y2 .For example,in the sentence″bu wen Xia(X1 ) Yin(X2 ) shuai,zhong zi zhu Bao(Y1 ) Da(Y2 )″(literally,I can't hear about the decline of the Tang dynasty because the emperor was willing to kill his favorite concubine,which is different from the decline of Xia and Shang dynasty whose emperors indulged themselves in favoring the imperial concubines such as Bao and Da) from a classical Chinese poetry,″Xia(X1 ) Yin(X2 )″and″Bao(Y1 ) Da(Y2 )″are symmetry structures .According to the interpretation of intertextuality,the symmetry structure means″I can't hear about the decline of the Tang dynasty because the emperor was willing to kill his favourite imperial concubine,which is different from the decline of Xia,Shang,and Zhou dynasty whose emperors indulged themselves in their favored imperial concubines such as Mei,Bao,and Da,″as in the pattern of X1X2Y',X'Y1Y2 (bu wen Xia(X1 ) Yin(X2 ) Zhou(Y') shuai,zhong zi zhu Mei(X') Bao(Y1 ) Da (Y2 )) .In the pattern,″Zhou(Y')″is related with″Bao(Y1 ),″and Mei(X')″is related with″Xia (X1 ) .″ Type 4 is″X1X2,Y1Y2—X1X2Y2,Y1Y2X2,″which means that the opposite information of Y2 is added to X1 X2,and the opposite information of X2 is added to Y1 Y2 .For example,in the phrase″Zheng(X1 ) zhao(X2 ),Song(Y1 ) long(Y2 ) (literally,Zheng is bright and Song is deaf),″″Zheng(X1 )zhao (X2 )″and″Song (Y1 )long (Y2 )″are symmetry structures .According to the interpretation of intertextuality,the symmetry structure means″Zheng is bright and sensitive,and Song is blind and deaf,″as in the pattern of X1 X2 Y2,Y1 Y2 X2 (Zheng(X1 ) zhao(X2 ) cong (Y2 ),Song(Y1 ) long(Y2 ) mang(X2 )) .In the pattern,″cong(Y2 )″is the opposite of long(Y2 ) in meaning,so is″mang(X2 )″and zhao(X2 ) . Apart from these 4 types,there are another 18 kinds of intertextuality type in Chinese,which has been described in the paper . The Chinese traditional intertextuality theory can be further developed from two perspectives in the future :firstly there should be other types of intertextuality which have not been included in this article .Hence potentially,more will be discovered and added to the type pool;secondly,because of the closely relation between the rich types of Chinese intertextuality and the nonlinear features of language organization,information communication,and psychological cognition,the traditional Chinese intertextuality theory could be revived if interdisciplinary researches in connection with information science,cognitive psychology,and even neurological science are conducted .

The constructional network of the Chinese Monotransitive Construction can be divided into two types : the Agent Subject Construction and the Non-Agent Subject Construction (NASC,for short) .The latter can be instantiated by the following 4-character string″apple crush-ed juice,″meaning″The apple was crushed into juice .″Its form and meaning pairing is [non-agent semantic role/subject] + [verb + object],whose constructional meaning is that the entity or event related to a non-agent semantic role is elaborated by the verb + object chunk .Up to now,the domestic linguistic circle hardly adopts an ontological and holistic approach to this type of construction . On the basis of Cognitive Construction Grammar,we probe into the ways in which NASCs coerce and integrate verb's basic constructions participating in them .In light of Langacker's reference point relationship,we have reconstructed the NASC encoding process .Drawing on the abductive reasoning and checking to find the original semantic roles related to participating verbs,we have reconstructed NASC decoding process .In both processes,verb's basic constructions play a crucial role .We have conducted a survey on stativization cline in different NASCs by observing changes in the action chain and vector,and also a diachronic investigation and a cross-linguistic comparison,which show the enabling conditions for NASC and its typological value . Our study has obtained the following findings :(1) Compared with the unmarked Agent-Subject Monotransitive Construction,NASC is marked,which is derived from the former .(2) In NASC,a non-agent semantic role takes the subject position and is spotlighted,whereas the agent is hidden or placed elsewhere .This flexibility can be accounted for by the encoder's alternative attachments of his empathy .(3) With the vector reduced,the force in the action chain decreases .(4) At the discourse level the subject of NASC often functions as a topic .(5) A diachronic investigation and a cross-linguistic survey show that syntactic simplicity and loose semantic relations give rise to convenient transfer of semantic roles in Chinese . This interaction between semantics and syntax is perhaps unique but reasonable in terms of the Chinese logic .As mankind is the master of the world and human language reflects his egocentric life,almost all actions on earth,in our human view,are performed by us .Therefore,there lies an important conceptual metonymy : ACTION FOR THE ACTION TOGETHER WITH ITS AGENT,which is generally accepted and widespread in the language .With the agent hidden and the verb's dynamicity attenuated,semantic roles commonly occurring in the object position can appear in the subject position,and further evolutions occur when non-core semantic roles can also be in the subject position .This movement eventually leads to the diversity of semantic roles in both subject and object positions .The current mechanism of Chinese is brought about for pragmatic efficiency by the simplification of semantic representation and removal of syntactic constraints . Our research methodology gives this research the following benefits :(1) The combination of semantics and syntax offers a unified framework,under which more constructions are under review than those in other researches . (2) The integration of the inductive and deductive approaches helps to deepen the research into the inheritance relations between the verb's basic construction and the super-construction .(3) The distinction on which we insist between the level of subject and object and the level of agent and patient settles the confusion on the two levels that lingered over previous studies . Non-Agent Subject Monotransitive Constructions are of many complex types in Chinese . This study provides a brand-new ontological perspective for the commonly-called″topic-prominent sentence .″

The principle of syntax-semantics correspondence,or the principle of compositionality,is one of the golden rules in the formal treatment of natural language,which is thoroughly embodied in CCG .The common practice of CCG is as follows :in the lexicon of CCG,the basic expressions of NL (natural language) are labeled with an ordered pair of terms,the term of syntactic category and the semantic term .In the process of CCG's derivation,the concatenation of NL expressions has been changed into the parallelism of derivation of syntactic category and l-calculus .In NL processing,the treatment of CCG constitutes a transparent interface between syntax and semantics of NL,because from the formal semantic point of view,the derivation of syntactic category which represents the syntactic construction of NL and the l-calculus which represents the semantic generation of NL by means of providing the indirect model-theoretic interpretations are two sides of the same coin .However,the problem of the CCG approach to Mandarin Chinese under this principle mainly lies in the fact that great progress has been achieved in the treatment of syntax while little progress in the treatment of semantics .Currently,in the CCG's studies on Mandarin Chinese,the researchers mainly explore the possibility of more effective and accurate syntactic parsing by means of giving proper syntactic rules and determining categorial assignment for the basic expressions according to their syntactic features .In contrast,whether such syntactic parsing is suitable for semantic representation is not their concern . Considering the close relation between syntax and semantics,the separation of syntactic parsing from semantic representation will decrease remarkably the significance of the syntactic parsing . For instance,the Mandarin Chinese sentence with prepositional phrases is noted for its flexible word order,which constitutes one of the challenges for CCG .As a tentative solution,Hoffman's multiset-CCG is introduced,which adheres to the lexicalism and aims at representing the flexible word order in Turkish . The multiset-CCG is featured by the flexible order of application of arguments' category,that is,when the functor category is applied to the category of arguments,there is no strict restriction on the order of arguments . The flexible order of arguments' category will render multiset-CCG an advantage in representing the flexible word order in Mandarin Chinese .However,the application of multiset-CCG in the treatment of Mandarin Chinese needs the simplified semantic representation in order to achieve the syntax-semantics correspondence . Since the semantic terms written in the style of MG or Event semantics are not easy to be adapted to the multiset-CCG treatment,it is preferable to adopt the basic concepts of Situation Semantics to simplify the semantic representation :a verb will be viewed as the predicate which signifies the relation existing not only between the argument of Agent and of Patient,but also among the arguments of Instrument,and Place and many others .Depending on a Chinese verb's syntactic functions,it will be possible to label it with more than one syntactic categories and simplified semantic terms . In this way,the syntax-semantics correspondence can be realized in the application of multiset-CCG in parsing Mandarin Chinese sentences with flexible word order .

Cui Yin was a writer enjoying the same celebrity as Ban Gu and Fu Yi in the early Eastern Han Dynasty .His works became obsolete after the Tang Dynasty .His works such as ″Odes to Northern Expedition″(《北征颂》) and″Four Odes on the Royal Inspection Tours″(《四巡颂》) have however been preserved in Wenguan Cilin in Japan (日藏弘仁本《文馆词林》) .A thorough inquiry is needed concerning such aspects as his circle of friends in the royal college,the exact writing time of his works,and their historical values . Firstly,although Cui Yin,Ban Gu and Fu Yi all had the experience of studying in the royal college,it does not mean Cui Yin was the schoolmate of the other two,who were more renowned than Cui Yin .After his early years of study in his hometown Pingling (now Xianyang,Shanxi Province),Fu Yi began his study in the royal college around 59 A .D .(the 2nd year in the reign of Emperor Ming of the Eastern Han Dynasty) .In contrast,Ban Gu quit his studies in the royal college in 54 A .D .(the 30th year in the reign of Emperor Guangwu) .When his father Ban Biao,a famous historian,died,he was obliged to go back to his hometown to mourn for three years in accordance with traditional practices .Afterwards,Ban Gu moved his family to Luoyang,the capital of the country,and was nominated as a royal secretary in 62 A .D .(the 5th year in the reign of Emperor Ming),which means Ban Gu had no chance of studying together with Fu Yi in the royal college .In fact,Fu Yi turned to Ban Gu for historical compilation,thereby making himself a student of the latter .On the other hand,Cui Yin did study together with Fu Yi in the royal college,but there was little chance for him to be a schoolmate of Ban Gu . Secondly,it is deduced that a great many works of Cui Yin were produced during his study in the royal college .As Emperor Zhang ascended to the throne,he summoned writers to compose odes to Emperor Ming .In response,Cui Yin composed″Odes to Emperor Ming″(《明帝颂》) around 78 A .D .(the 3rd year in the reign of Emperor Zhang) .From 80 A .D .till 81 A .D . (the 5th and 6th year in the reign of Emperor Zhang),Emperor Zhang attached great importance to Winter Solstice .As a result,Cui Yin composed a series of works such as″Odes to Socks in Winter Solstice″(《冬至袜铭》),″Odes to Sewing″(《缝铭》),and″Odes to a Cup″(《樽铭》) .Cui Yin composed his famous work″Dazhi″(《达旨》),which reflected the historical events of Emperor Zhang carrying out Confucian education and heightening the social and political status of teachers . There were also some descriptions about the national carnivals for finding a phoenix in 85 A .D . (the 2nd year in the reign of Emperor Zhang) . Thirdly,Cui Yin's″Odes to Northern Expedition″(《北征颂》)might have other titles .Li Shan,a scholar in the Tang Dynasty,once quoted a sentence from Cui Yin's″Wu Fu″(《武赋》)to annotate Wenxuan(《文?? .Besides,Yu Shinan,another scholar in the Tang Dynasty,also quoted a sentence from Cui Yin's″Wudu Fu″(《武都赋》)in his Beitang Shuchao(《北堂书钞》) . Coincidentally,both sentences can be found in Cui Yin's″Odes to Northern Expedition .″It means that ″Odes to Northern Expedition,″″Wu Fu″and″Wudu Fu″are actually the same work with different titles . Lastly,as one of the greatest works of Cui Yin,″Four Odes on the Royal Inspection Tours″ (《四巡颂》),consisting of″Odes on the Eastern,Western,Northern and Southern Royal Inspection Tours,″was presented to Emperor Zhang when the latter finished the southern inspection tour in the October of 87 A .D .(the 1st year in the reign of Emperor Zhang in the Eastern Han Dynasty) .Apparently,all of them have great historical values,but they tend to be ignored by contemporary scholars .″Odes on the Southern Royal Inspection Tours″can supplement the records in The History of the Eastern Han Dynasty (《后汉书》) regarding the southern inspection tour of Emperor Zhang .The descriptions of the worship of Qu Yuan also reveals the fact that Qu Yuan had gotten a higher status in the early Eastern Han Dynasty than before,which can help enrich the study of The Songs of Chu (《楚辞》) .″Odes on the Western,Northern and Southern Royal Inspection Tours″have important values as a supplement to The History of the Eastern Han Dynasty .It is worth mentioning that″Odes on the Western Royal Inspection Tours″has more important historical values than the other three works,as it included the political motivation,the routes,the time of the start and end,and a series of sacrificial activities of this royal inspection tours,which could make up for the poor records in The History of the Eastern Han Dynasty where there were only less than twenty words of description .

At the turn of the Ming and Qing Dynasties,there is the most prosperous period in the history of civil societies formed by ancient Chinese scholars .In the early Qing Dynasty,Lian Society,founded by Chen Hu the famous thinker,is one of the important associations of the adherents of the Ming Dynasty .The information about Lian Society could be mainly found in Wantan Shihua edited by Chen Hu .Although it is called Shihua,it is a kind of responding-style poetry collections .The works and authors contained in Wantan Shihua are numerous and jumbled .Therefore,Wantan Shihua is not simply equal to the poetry collections of Lian Society .Through careful analysis and identification upon Wantan Shihua,we find that Lian Society was founded on August 15th Mid-Autumn Festival,1647 (the forth year under the rein of Emperor Shun Zhi in the Qing Dynasty) .It is located in the Wei Village,one of the small villages in Kunshang city,Jiangsu Province .The members of the Lian Society also made their own rules named The Law of Lian Society .They often held gatherings and responsory activities,at least more than six events,such as enjoying the full moon while drinking,rowing on the pool,village visiting,drinking in Lancao,imitating the poems of Pi Rixiu and Lu Guimeng in Lanxi,writing poems in the House of Fenglin,and so on .In August,1649 (the sixth year under the rein of Emperor Shun Zhi in Qing Dynasty),Chen Hu was invited by Mao Jin,a famous bibliophile and published author,to teach in Changshu,Province,which marked the end of their gatherings and responsory activities in the Lian Society .The members of Lian Society included the prominent thinker Lu Shiyi,Wang Yu,Sheng Jing,Lu Xibin,Jiang Shishao,Xia Youguang,Li Guomei,Hua Qianlong,Wang Faxiang,Gong Wan,Cao Fen,etc .Some of menbers' personal information is still under investigation .In the meanwhile,we find that some members of the Lian Society also joined other similar societies,such as Zhongqiu Kunhu Literary Society in Changshu,Jiangsu Province,Loudong Shilao Society and Yinxi Poetry Society in Taicang and the like,so other researches will be made upon this aspect .Above all,we can also make the further explorations of other poetry societies that Chen Hu and other members founded or joined .Thus,we can clarify relations about Lian Society and Wantan Shihua in more aspects .All of the related investigations will be useful to further researches on the associations of the adherents of the Ming Dynasty in the whole early Qing Dynasty and even the civil societies formed by ancient Chinese scholars .

For a long time,the main focus of research conducted by language testers and language testing researchers has been on improving reliability and ensuring validity of tests in order to assess test-takers' language proficiency objectively and accurately .With their widespread use,large-scale and high-stakes language tests have exerted a great influence on test-takers' lives as well as the lives of other stakeholders,which has drawn more attention of the public to fairness and social consequences of language tests .Language testers are fully aware that improving tests can only solve the problems concerning the internal quality of tests,without providing effective solutions to those embedded in social and political contexts,such as minimizing misuse or abuse of tests,enhancing fairness of test administration and use,etc .Therefore,the field of language testing has shifted its focus to the issues of test use and impact,and efforts have been made in recent years to look at the social dimensions of language testing and language education .The research of social dimensions of language testing has been nourished by the development of validity theory .The first section of the article reviews the development of validity theory of language testing and the background of critical language testing theory .Elana Shohamy advanced the theory of Critical Language Testing (CLT) in the plenary talk at the annual conference of the American Association for Applied Linguistics in 1997 .She pointed out that″The act of language testing is not neutral .Rather,it is a product and agent of cultural,social,political,educational and ideological agendas that shape the lives of individual participants,teachers and learners .″The theory of critical language testing illuminates a broader social and political context of language tests .It reconsiders the consequences of tests which are not confined to washback,in terms of effects on instruction,learning and educational advancement .Instead,it reexamines the exercise of consensual power and control of tests over individuals and educational systems .The second section of the article introduces the main idea of CLT in five aspects in detail,including emergence of power of language tests,transformation of language tests from measuring tools to powerful tools,fairness of language tests,the alternative assessment of language tests and social responsibilities of language testers . The third section suggests the implications of CLT for language testing practice and foreign language education in China .First,efforts should be made to balance Chinese learning and foreign language learning while attaching importance to the latter .Students' awareness of learning Chinese should be enhanced in order to preserve,promote and develop Chinese culture .Second,the critical perspective should be taken to examine the use of tests in wider social context and to guard against the misuse and abuse of tests . Third,attempts should be made to develop alternative assessment aiming at reducing the risk of some large-scale tests as the only evidence for decision-making .As one of the various perspectives reflecting language testing,CLT broadens the research field from psychometrics and statistics to sociology and signifies a paradigm shift in language testing research .Rather than limiting its concerns to technical sophistication and efficiency,CLT shifts its focus to social discourse and social dimensions of language testing .Reflections on how to apply CLT to language testing research and practice and further develop the theory will prove a worthwhile endeavor .

While traditional grammar mainly employs qualitative methods in linguistic descriptions,quantitative linguistics depends on statistical methods . Quantitative linguistic analysis based on (syntactically-tagged) corpora can not only test the established laws in grammatical studies but also yield more objective typological comparison of different languages and thus more precise description and explanation of the commonality and diversity of human languages . With the STR treebank built by the Russian Academy of Sciences as data source,this paper extracts data concerning nominal structures with nouns as governors,analyzes statistically the basic types and word-order properties of the nominal structures and dependency relations which nouns can govern,and draws the following precise conclusions from the perspective of quantitative analysis :(1) Russian is a dependent-final language,with 64 .41% of the dependents occurring after their governors;(2) the major types of nominal structures in Russian are concordant attribute and non-concordant attribute relations,their percentages being 40 .49% and 32 .02% respectively;(3) word orders in the Russian nominal structures tend to follow certain patterns,with A(w) + S(g) structures mostly (96 .51% ) dependent-initial and the other three types dependent-final . Besides,statistical analysis of the dependency distances of nominal structures has shown that different structures vary in dependency distance,reflecting different degrees of proximity between the words . Analysis of the composition of high-frequency dependency relations has proved that nouns are a word class with the most diversified syntactic functions . On the basis of a quantitative investigation of Russian nouns,we have achieved three objectives :(1) the established statements in traditional grammar studies have been confirmed;(2) these statements have been formulated more precisely;(3) certain structural patterns of Russian nouns for which traditional methods are incapable have now been detected .Therefore,quantitative studies of the syntactic properties of word classes not only complement relevant statements in traditional grammar from the quantitative perspective but also are significant for linguistic typology . As the data extracted from the STR treebank by this paper cover texts of different genres,the conclusions derived from the data are generalizable to the entire Russian language .In future research,comparison can be made of data extracted from texts of different genres so that more fine-grained characterization of the syntactic properties of Russian nouns can be achieved and comparison with other languages can shed light on the commonality and diversity of human languages .

Validation is one of the core concepts in the field of language testing .In recent years,validity argument and assessment usage argument have provided new perspective and approach to language test validation .Based on the interpretative argument and with the inferences and assumptions,a scientific inquiry into score interpretation and use becomes the focus of validation research .According to assessment usage argument,evaluation is the first step in the whole validation process .Evaluation is based on the warrant that observations of performance on test tasks could provide observed scores reflective of targeted language abilities .And the assumption underlying this warrant is that rubrics for scoring responses are suitable to provide evidence for targeted language abilities .In order to obtain backing for the inference,researchers need to make sure that rubrics are developed,trialed and revised based on expert consensus .However,some researches point out that the present rubrics for oral performance assessment are not specific and detailed .This may result from the lack of empirical research,and particularly the research on raters' rating process and performance . Under the background of the popularizing of TEM4 Oral Test among Chinese universities and colleges,this research aims to investigate the validity of the rating scale of TEM4 Oral Test story retelling task and inquire whether and to what extent the present rubrics for scoring story retelling task are appropriate for providing evidence for the oral proficiency of the sophomore English majors in Chinese universities and colleges . Following the theoretical framework of validity argument and assessment usage argument and focusing on score interpretation,the researcher has analyzed qualitative and quantitative data obtained through observation of expert rating process and has attempted to find the answers to the following research questions :(1) To which conceptual categories do expert raters attend in conducting their evaluations of performance on the story retelling task ? (2) How do the expert raters characterize different levels of the students' story retelling performances ? Participants for this study were 10 expert raters from 2 Chinese universities .All of the raters have rich experience of English teaching in Chinese colleges and universities,and all of them have been the raters for other types of English oral tests .Retrospective verbal report and stimulated recall were applied to collect the qualitative data concerning raters' cognition in the rating process .In the retrospective verbal report,after listening to the audiotaped performance as a whole,the raters provided a verbal report on assessing .Afterwards,the raters listened to the tape the second time and may stop the record at any place and any time to provide the stimulated recalls .Based on both qualitative and quantitative data analysis,the study has found that the raters attended to four major conceptual categories when assessing students' story retelling performances : linguistic resources including grammar,vocabulary and expression,retelling content,fluency and pronunciation .It is suggested that fluency should be added as a category into the present story retelling rubric which only contains grammar and vocabulary,retelling content and pronunciation .At the same time,the study has found that within different levels,raters' attention was paid to different aspects of retelling performance in specific categories . Finally,through summarizing and subcategorizing,the study has made a contribution to a more detailed and operationalized rubrics of four levels which has modified the current rating scale for the story retelling task of TEM4 Oral Test and might promote English major teaching and learning in Chinese colleges and universities in terms of attaining test objectiveness and fairness .